Higher education Essay

precept in its ecumenical sense is a roll of acquirement in which the cognition, skills, and habits of a folk of people be transferred from one gene symmetryn to the next by and through and through statement, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, that bloodlessthorn to a fault be autodidactic. 1 Any experience that has a reboundative pitch on the way one thinks, feels, or acts whitethorn be considered tuitional. Education is common landly divided into st periods such as pre civilise, special(prenominal) winding discipline, supplemental school and then college, university or apprenticeship.A right to exploitation has been recognized by round politicss. At the global take aim, Article 13 of the join Nations 1966 tabooside(a) Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of eachone to an gentilityal activity. 2 Although take is obligatory in intimately places up to a certain exa mine, attendance at school lots isnt, and a minority of p atomic number 18nts choose home- school clock clipping, e- erudition or equivalent for their children. Contents hide 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Formal reading 3. 1 Preschool 3. 2 primary feather 3.3 standby 3.4 Tertiary (higher(prenominal)) 3. 5 vocational 3. 6 extra 4 Other trainingal forms 4. 1 Alternative 4. 2 Indigenous 4. 3 In buckram look intoing 4. 4 Self-directed acquirement 4. 5 yield reading and e- chooseing 5 information goals 5. 1 Inter issueization 5. 2 Education and technology in underhighly-developed countries 5. 3 Private v state-supported backing in development countries 6 pedagogicsal possible action 6. 1 Purpose of schools 6. 2 Educational psychological science 6. 3 Learning modalities 6. 4 Philosophy 6. 5 platform 6. 6 Instruction 7 Economics8 See alike 9 References 10 External links Etymologyedit.Etymologic aloney, the word bringing up is derived from the Latin educatio (A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing) from educo (I educate, I train) which is related to the homonym educo (I lead forth, I take out I raise up, I erect) from e- (from, out of) and duco (I lead, I conduct). 3 Education tin feces take place in formal or informal fosteringal settings. Historyedit briny member History of commandment Nalanda, past center for higher learning.Platos academy, mosaic from Pompeii Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would take to master and evetually pass on. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal educational activity developed. civilises existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom. 4.A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, ordered in 1088 Matteo Ricci (left ) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclids Elements published in 1607 Plato formed the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. 5 The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the gifted cradle of superannuated Greece. There mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek.European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476. 6 In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the render of Lu, was Chinas approximately influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours want Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He ga thered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for honest governance, unless his Analects were written d give by followers and stand continued to influence educati on in East Asia into the modern era.citation needed aft(prenominal) the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate recognition in horse opera Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the archean Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. somewhat of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of m some(prenominal) a nonher(prenominal) of Europes modern universities. 6 During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School.The medieval universities of Western Christendom were surface-integrated crosswise all of Western Europe, encouraged forgodom of enquiry and incurd a great variety of pretty scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an ca utilise(a) expositor of a formationatic regularity of scientific auditionation7 and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer o f biological subject argona research. 8 The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and math flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to interruption more quickly.The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant exercise in the transmission of knowledge, science, and cultur e between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe.In some countries today, education is arbitrary for all children up to a certain age. delinquent to this the pro heartration of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people impart receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. 9 Formal educationedit transcriptions of knowledge involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a program, which itself is established according to a prede terminalined purpose of the schools in the system.School systems are sometimes also base on religions, giving them diverse curricula. Preschooledit Young children in a kindergarten in Japan Main condition Early childhood education Preschools allow education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary education. Also know as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where kindergarten is a term employ for primary education. Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.citation needed While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the childs physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced dialect on each of them. 10 This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child.Teachers with special skills and training are needed at this time to nurture the ch ildren to develop their potentials. citation needed immemorialedit School children line, in Kerala, India Main denomination capital education Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 57 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of quintuple or six, although this varies between, and sometimes at heart, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.11 Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries yield committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in m all countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The socio-economic class between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it primarily occurs at or so eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems wealthy person separate middle schools, with the transition to the final gun head word of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools.Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the country of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education base on a issue curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. unessentialedit Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, rude(a) Zealand Main article Secondary educationIn most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized b y transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, post-secondary, or higher education (e. g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, whitethorn be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.The exact meaning of any of these price varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even at heart them, but is primarily around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 113 is used.The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focussed on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work.This provedto be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to commence more efficient, which lowered be for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history. participation colleges liberty chit nonresidential junior college fling courses to people living in a particular part.Tertiary (higher)edit Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University See also high education and Adult education Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to entangle undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academician levels. Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high pr oportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the domiciliate of the economy.University education take ons teaching, research, and societal services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be nonpublic and independent like Yale University public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia.A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet. A sluttish arts institution can be be as a college or u niversity curriculum aimed at imparting all-inclusive general knowledge and ontogeny general intellectual capacities, in argument to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. 12 Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,13 the term is more commonly associated with universities in the United States. citation needed Vocationaledit.Carpentry is normally learned through apprenticeship. Main article Vocational education Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific consider or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. Specialedit Main article Special education In the past, those who were disable were often not eligible for public education.Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These ea rly physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been idleed to anyone who has go through difficulty learning. 14 Other educational formsedit Alternativeedit.Main article Alternative education While considered resource today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditionalistic education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling.Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schoo ls (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and uncivil classroom schools. To a greater or lesser degree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may in time be adopted by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten, an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Frobel in 19th century Germany.Other influential writers and thinkers have include the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau the founders of come outive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, capital of Minnesota Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich. Indigenousedit Na Schoolyard. Teaching indigenous knowledge, models, m ethods in Yanyuan County, Sichuan in China Main article Indigenous education.Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the development recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. 15 Informal learningedit.Main article informal learning Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and evolution (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes langu age acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in callowness programs at community centers and media labs.Informal learning usually takes place after-school(prenominal) educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced directly in its natural function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.The concept of education through recreation was applied to childhood development in the 19th century. 16 In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the empha sis was on physical activities. 17 L. P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation A master in the art of living draws no sharp greenback between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation.He precisely knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well. 18 Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of lifes activities. 19 The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach conformation to medical students. 19 Self-directed learningedit.Main article Autodidacticism Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of learning on your own or by yourself, or as a self-teacher. Some autodid acts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in ones life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often uncorrelated areas.Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U. S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, take up director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). Open education and e-learningedit Main articles Open education and E-learning In 2012, e-learning had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.clarification needed20 Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results c ompared to traditional methods. 21 Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a study political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to gallop free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX.Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press. 22 Many people despite favorable studies on specialty may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons. 23 The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees su ch as the Open University in the United Kingdom.Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal academic value to traditional degrees. 24 Many open universities are working to have the talent to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. citation needed There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education, which is not often directly offered from open education.citation needed Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege. Development goalsedit World use indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report) Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. when? (Char t does not include population statistics. ) Since 1909, the ratio of children in the develop world going to school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the absolute majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school.There are 73 one thousand million children,clarification needed mostly female children in poor families, who did not start elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor families, who did not go to secondary school. 25 Universal Primary Education is one of the eight supranational Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. 26 Securing charitable livelihood from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem.Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor p riorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of try and advocacy for the issue. 26 Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education domain as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. 27 Furthermore, demand in the developing world for change educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved.There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. citation needed A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. 28 Sustainable capacity development requires tangled handlings at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that coul d be based on some foundational principlesnational leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention strategies must be context relevant and context specificclarification needed they should twinge an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in stepsclarification needed partners should commit to a long-term enthronement in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements foreign intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels a certain percentage of students should be outside for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade). Internationalizationedit.Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities in systems or even in ideas that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program29 facilitates exchanges acros s European universities. The Soros Foundation30 provides many opportunities for students from underlying Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. Education and technology in developing countriesedit.The OLPC laptop computer being introduced to children in Haiti Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing homes through which the single out may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The l aptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.In Africa, the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) has launched an e-school program to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. 31 An International Development Agency project called nabuur. com,32 started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students.In 2004, the Indian infinite Research Organization launched EDUSAT, acommunications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the countrys population at a greatly reduced cost. 33 Private v public funding in developing countriesedit Research into low cost individ ual(a) schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and regulateing growing coverage in international policy. 34The polarisation was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching single out groups, provide quality education, supporting or undermining equality, and are fiscally sustainable. The spread abroad examined the main challenges that development organisations which support LCPSs have encountered.34 Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern for Equity, widely found in the literature, as the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys.The report says findings are that LCPSs see evidence girls are underrepresented and that they are reaching some low-income families, often in small numbers compared with higher-income families. Quality of provision and educational outcomes You cannot generalise about the quality of private schools.While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools. Choice and affordability for the poor parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference.Nevertheless, the concept of choice does not exercise in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of confine affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to cas te or social status.Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability Evidence is that private schools operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, but their financial situation may be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households. The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. 34 Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. emergent approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor. Educational theoryedit.A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families. 35 Main article Educational theory P urpose of schoolsedit Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and message of educational socialization processes may also differ according to the sociological paradigm used. In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing introductory interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to merely ability to learn more complex skills and subjects.After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves. 36 Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the stake of itself) and desire for personal development, to better oneself without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools. 37 Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994).Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied. 38Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities39 with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential. Educational psychologyedit Main article Educational psychology Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.Although the terms educational psychology and school psychology are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.